Nouns
A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing. Nouns come in these varieties: common
nouns, proper nouns, compound nouns, and collective nouns.
1. Common nouns name any one of a class of person, place, or thing.
girl city food
2. Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing. Proper nouns are always capitalized.
Barbara New York City Rice-a-Roni
3. Compound nouns are two or more nouns that function as a single unit. A compound noun
can be two individual words, words joined by a hyphen, or two words combined.
Individual words: time capsule
Hyphenated words: great-uncle
Combined words: basketball
4. Collective nouns name groups of people or things.
audience family herd crowd
Possessive Nouns
In grammar, possession shows ownership. Follow these rules to create possessive nouns.
1. With singular nouns, add an apostrophe and an s.
dog → dog’s bone
singer → singer’s voice
2. With plural nouns ending in s, add an apostrophe after the s.
dogs → dogs’ bones
singers → singers’ voices
3. With plural nouns not ending in s, add an apostrophe and an s.
men → men’s books
mice → mice’s tails
Plural Nouns
Here are the guidelines for creating plural nouns.
1. Add s to form the plural of most nouns.
cat → cats computer → computers
2. Add es if the noun ends in s, sh, ch, or x.
wish → wishes inch → inches box → boxes
3. If a noun ends in consonant -y, change the y to i and add es.
city → cities lady → ladies
4. If a noun ends in vowel -y, add s. Words ending in -quy don’t follow this rule (as in soliloquies).
essay → essays monkey → monkeysPronouns
A pronoun is a word used in place of a noun or another pronoun. Pronouns help you avoid unnecessary repetition in your writing and speech. A pronoun gets its meaning from the noun it stands for. The noun is called the antecedent.
Although Seattle is damp, it is my favorite city.
antecedent pronoun1. Personal pronouns refer to a specific person, place, object, or thing.
Singular Plural
First person I, me, mine, my we, us, our, ours
Second person you, your, yours you, your, yours
Third person he, him, his, she, her, hers, it they, them, their, theirs, its
2. Possessive pronouns show ownership. The possessive pronouns are: your, yours, his, hers,
its, ours, their, theirs, whose.
Is this beautiful plant yours?
Yes, it’s ours.
3. Reflexive pronouns add information to a sentence by pointing back to a noun or pronoun near the beginning of the sentence. Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves.
Tricia bought herself a new car.
All her friends enjoyed themselves riding in the beautiful car.
4. Intensive pronouns also end in -self or -selves but just add emphasis to the noun or pronoun.
Tricia herself picked out the car.
5. Demonstrative pronouns direct attention to a specific person, place, or thing. There are only four demonstrative pronouns: this, that, these, those.
This is my favorite movie.
That was a fierce rain storm.
6. Relative pronouns begin a subordinate clause. There are five relative pronouns: that, which, who, whom, those.
Jasper claimed that he could run the washing machine.
Louise was the repair person who fixed the machine after Jasper washed his sneakers.
Singular Plural Singular or Plural
another both all
anyone few any
each many more
everyone others most
everybody several none
everything some
much
nobody
nothing
other
someone
anybody
anything
either
little
neither
no one
one
somebody
something
7. Interrogative pronouns ask a question. They are: what, which, who, whom, whose.
Who would like to cook dinner?
Which side does the fork go on?
8. Indefinite pronouns refer to people, places, objects, or things without pointing to a specific one. The most common indefinite pronouns are listed in the chart on the previous page.
Verbs
Verbs name an action or describe a state of being. Every sentence must have a verb. There are three basic types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs.
Action Verbs
Action verbs tell what the subject does. The action can be visible (jump, kiss, laugh) or mental (think, learn, study).
The cat broke Louise’s china.
Louise considered buying a new china cabinet.
An action verb can be transitive or intransitive.
Transitive verbs need a direct object.
The boss dropped the ball.
The workers picked it up.
Intransitive verbs do not need a direct object.
Who called?
The temperature fell over night.
Linking Verbs
Linking verbs join the subject and the predicate. They do not show action. Instead, they help the words at the end of the sentence name or describe the subject. As you read earlier in this chapter, the most common linking verbs include: be, feel, grow, seem, smell, remain, appear, sound, stay, look, taste, turn, become. Look for forms of to be, such as am, are, is, was, were,am being, can be, have been, and so on.
The manager was happy about the job change.
He is a good worker.
Many linking verbs can also be used as action verbs.
Linking: The kids looked sad.
Action: I looked for the dog in the pouring rain.
Helping Verbs
Helping verbs are added to another verb to make the meaning clearer. Helping verbs include any form of to be, do, does, did, have, has, had, shall, should, will, would, can, could, may, might, must. Verb phrases are made up of one main verb and one or more helping verbs.
They will run before dawn.
They still have not yet found a smooth track.
Adjectives
Adjectives are words that describe nouns and pronouns. Adjectives answer the questions:
What kind? How much? Which one? How many? For example:
What kind? red nose gold ring
How much? more sugar little effort
Which one? second chance those chocolates
How many? several chances six books
There are five kinds of adjectives: common adjectives, proper adjectives, compound adjectives,
articles, and indefinite adjectives.
1. Common adjectives describe nouns or pronouns.
strong man
green plant
beautiful view
2. Proper adjectives are formed from proper nouns.
California vegetables (from the noun “California”)
Mexican food (from the noun “Mexico”)
3. Compound adjectives are made up of more than one word.
far-off country
teenage person
4. Articles are a special type of adjective. There are three articles: a, an, the.
The is called a “definite article” because it refers to a specific thing.
A and an are called “indefinite articles” because they refer to general things. Use a with consonant sounds; use an before vowel sounds.
5. Indefinite adjectives don’t specify the specific amount of something.
all another any both
each either few many
more most neither other
several some
Follow these guidelines when you use adjectives:
1. Use an adjective to describe a noun or a pronoun.
Jesse was unwilling to leave the circus.
noun adj. adj. noun
1. Use vivid adjectives to make your writing more specific and descriptive.
Take a larger slice of the luscious cake.
adj. noun adj. noun
3. Use an adjective after a linking verb. A linking verb connects a subject with a descriptive word. The most common linking verbs are be (is, am, are, was, were, and so on), seem, appear, look, feel, smell, sound, taste, become, grow, remain, stay, and turn.
Chicken made this way tastes more delicious (not deliciously)
Adverbs
Adverbs are words that describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Adverbs answer the questions: When? Where? How? or To what extent?
When? left yesterday begin now
Where? fell below move up
How? happily sang danced badly
To what extent? partly finished eat completely
Most adverbs are formed by adding -ly to an adjective. For example:
Adjective Adverb
Quick — quickly
Careful — carefully
Accurate — accurately
Here are some of the most common non-ly adverbs:
afterward almost already also back even
far fast hard here how late
long low more near never next
now often quick rather slow soon
still then today tomorrow too when
where yesterday
Follow these guidelines when you use adverbs:
1. Use an adverb to describe a verb.
Experiments using dynamite must be done carefully.
verb adv.
2. Use an adverb to describe an adjective.
Sam had an unbelievably huge appetite for chips.
adv. adj.
3. Use an adverb to describe another adverb.
They sang so clearly.
adv. adv
Conjunctions
Conjunctions connect words or groups of words and show how the words are related. There
are three kinds of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions, correlative conjunctions, and subordinating conjunctions.
1. Coordinating conjunctions link similar words or word groups. There are seven coordinating conjunctions:
for and nor but or yet so
2. Correlative conjunctions also link similar words or word groups, but they are always used in pairs. Here are the correlative conjunctions:
both . . .and either . . . or
neither . . . nor not only . . . but also whether . . . or
3. Subordinating conjunctions link an independent clause (complete sentence) to a dependent clause (fragment). Here are the most often used subordinating conjunctions:
after although as as if
as long as as soon as as though because
before even though if in order that
since so that though till
unless until when whenever
where
Interjections
Interjections show strong emotion. Since interjections are not linked grammatically to other words in the sentence, they are set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma or an exclamation mark. For example:
_ Oh! What a shock you gave me with that gorilla suit.
_ Wow! That’s not a gorilla suit!
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